History: Timeline

-13.8 B

• Origin of the Universe

  • The most widely accepted scientific explanation is the Big Bang Theory, which suggests that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago from an extremely hot, dense state and has been expanding ever since.

• Scientific Evidence Supporting the Big Bang theory:
• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB): Often described as the “afterglow” of the Big Bang, the CMB is faint radiation that fills the universe and can be detected in every direction. Its discovery in 1965 provided strong evidence that the universe once existed in a much hotter and denser state.
• Expansion of the Universe (Hubble’s Law): Astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and the farther they are, the faster they recede. This observation shows that the universe is expanding, consistent with the idea of an initial explosive beginning.
• Space Missions and Observations: Advanced satellites and space telescopes—such as the Planck Satellite and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)—have mapped the cosmic microwave background in exquisite detail. These missions help refine our understanding of the universe’s age, composition, and the conditions present shortly after the Big Bang.

-20 to -15M

• The first hominids, our distant ancestors and relatives in the evolutionary tree emerge.
• Hominids are the great apes and their ancestors, which include humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
• Within this family, the hominins are the specific group that includes humans and our closest extinct relatives—those species more closely related to us than to chimpanzees.

-7 to -6M

• The earliest hominins (our direct lineage after splitting from the common ancestor with chimpanzees) emerge in Africa.
• Examples of these early species are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (about 7 million years old, found in Chad) and Orrorin tugenensis (about 6 million years old, from Kenya).
• Key traits of early hominins:
• They began experimenting with bipedalism (walking on two legs).
• They had smaller brains compared to modern humans but showed adaptations that set the stage for later evolutionary developments.
• They lived in diverse environments, from forests to savannas, which shaped their survival strategies.

-2M

• Homo erectus is one of the earliest human species, believed to have emerged in Africa around 2 million years ago. They are considered a direct ancestor of later humans, including Homo sapiens.
• Key characteristics:
• First hominin to have a body proportion similar to modern humans (longer legs, shorter arms).
• Skilled toolmakers (associated with the Acheulean stone tool tradition).
• Likely the first to control fire and build more complex shelters.
• Larger brain size (600–1100 cc) compared to earlier hominins, supporting more advanced behaviors.
• Fossil evidence has been found in Georgia (Dmanisi), Indonesia (Java Man), and China (Peking Man), showing their wide spread across Eurasia.
• Their migration marks a turning point in human evolution, showing adaptability to new climates and environments.
• They survived for a very long time—over 1.5 million years, making them one of the most successful human species in history.

-400K to -40K

• Neanderthals start to appear, they inhabited Europe, the Middle East, and parts of western Asia.
• Physical characteristics:
• Stocky build with shorter limbs—an adaptation to cold Ice Age climates.
• Larger brow ridges and a wider nose compared to modern humans.
• Brain size on average as large or even slightly larger than that of Homo sapiens.
• Culture and skills:
• Expert hunters who used sophisticated stone tools (Mousterian culture).
• Controlled fire, built shelters, and wore clothing made from animal hides.
• Evidence suggests they cared for the sick and elderly, and possibly engaged in symbolic behavior (such as burial rituals and use of pigments).
• Some caves in Spain (e.g., La Pasiega, Maltravieso) contain red ochre markings and hand stencils dated to 64,000 years ago, before modern humans arrived there — suggesting Neanderthals may have created symbolic art.
• Sites like Shanidar Cave (Iraq) and La Chapelle-aux-Saints (France) show deliberate burials of Neanderthals, sometimes with grave goods or flowers (though the “flower burial” remains debated).
• Language:
• Neanderthals had the FOXP2 gene linked to speech and language in modern humans.
• Their hyoid bone (important for speech) resembles ours, suggesting the ability to produce a wide range of sounds.
• Most scientists agree they had some form of spoken language, but whether it was as complex as ours is unknown.
• Interaction with modern humans:
• Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans (Homo sapiens) for thousands of years.
• Genetic evidence shows interbreeding: today, people of non-African descent carry about 1–2% Neanderthal DNA, influencing traits like immunity and skin adaptation.
• Livng in small groups, often in caves
• Archaeological evidence suggests Neanderthals lived in relatively small bands of 10–30 individuals.
• They frequently used caves as shelters (e.g., Shanidar Cave in Iraq, El Sidrón in Spain), but they also built open-air camps with stone circles and wooden structures.
• Extinction:
• They disappeared about 40,000 years ago, likely due to a combination of climate change, competition with modern humans, and assimilation through interbreeding.

-200K

• Origin of Modern Humans (Homo sapiens)
• When they appeared:
• Anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) first emerged in Africa around 200,000 years ago, most likely in regions south of the Sahara Desert
• Fossil discoveries such as those at Omo Kibish (Ethiopia, ~195,000 years ago) and Herto (Ethiopia, ~160,000 years ago) support this timeline.
• Key characteristics:
• Larger, more rounded skull with a high forehead compared to earlier hominins.
• Smaller face and teeth, with a pronounced chin.
• Brain size averaging around 1,300–1,400 cc, supporting advanced reasoning, creativity, and social behaviors.
• Why this matters:
• This marks the beginning of our species’ story—the “Out of Africa” origin.
• From Africa, Homo sapiens would later migrate across the globe, replacing or mixing with other hominins like Neanderthals and Denisovans.

-100K

• First Wave of Homo sapiens
• Small groups of Homo sapiens left Africa and reached parts of the Middle East (like Israel and Lebanon).
• These early migrations did not last long — many of these populations either died out or were absorbed by other hominins such as Neanderthals.

-4K

• Mesopotamia Civilization
• Located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (modern day Irak), this fertile region gave rise to the city of Uruk, one of the world’s first major urban centers.
• Shift from Hunting-Gathering to Agriculture
• Instead of relying on wild plants and animals, the people of Uruk learned to cultivate cereal grains like wheat and barley.
• Early food processing involved the hand mill: two stones used to crush grain into flour, which could then be stored and later cooked.
• This marks one of the first major examples of systematic agriculture in human history.
• Different Rulers and Empires
• -2.9K-2.7K: Gilgamesh was king of Uruk in Sumer
• -2.3K: Rise of Sargon of Akkad (Sargon the Great)
• Conquered the independent Sumerian city-states
• Founded the Akkadian Empire (often considered the world's first empire)
• Akkadians dit not conquer the Sumerians completely, rather, they ruled over them and absorbed Sumerian culture.
• -1.8K: Hammurabi’s Code
• King Hammurabi of Babylon created one of the world’s earliest legal codes.
• Written on a stone stele over 7 feet tall, inscribed with 282 laws.
• Examples:
• Law 1: False accusation of murder without proof → accuser put to death.
• Law 1: False accusation of murder without proof → accuser put to death.
• Law 197: Break another man’s bone → your bone is broken.
• aw 199: Harm a slave’s eye or bone → pay half the slave’s value.
• Introduced the principle of retributive justice ("an eye for an eye").
• Reinforced social hierarchy: nobles, commoners, and slaves had different values under the law.
• Established rule of law as the foundation of society.
• Influenced later legal traditions across the world.
• Impact on Society
• A stable food supply allowed Uruk to expand rapidly, eventually reaching a population of over 50,000 residents.
• Farming enabled permanent settlements, creating the foundation for urban life, trade, and complex societies.
• Invention of Writing
• The Sumerians in Mesopotamia developed the first true writing system: cuneiform.
• It began as pictographs pressed into clay tablets and gradually evolved into abstract symbols representing sounds and ideas.
• Impact on the Human Body
• The shift to a grain-based diet led to nutritional decline compared to hunter-gatherers.
• Average male height dropped from about 5’9” (1.75m) to 5’3” (1.60m); average female height declined from 5’3” (1.60m) to 5’0” (1.52m)
• Early farmers were smaller and less robust than their foraging ancestors.
• A New Way of Being Human:
• Instead of roaming across landscapes, people became land-bound farmers.
• This change transformed human life, identity, and society — the beginning of urban civilization as we know it.
• Decline and Fall
• Environmental factors:
• Over time, irrigation practices caused soil salinization, reducing agricultural productivity.
• Rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates shifted course, and recurring droughts made farming less reliable.
• Political instability:
• Mesopotamia was made up of city-states that frequently fought for dominance.
• Continuous warfare weakened states and disrupted trade and social order.
• External invasions:
• Various groups, such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Hittites, and Persians, invaded Mesopotamian lands, eventually absorbing or destroying its cities.
• Economic and social pressures:
• Resource scarcity and overpopulation led to social unrest.
• Inequalities between elites and common people created internal tensions.
• Legacy endures through knowledge:
• Despite their fall, Mesopotamians left a lasting impact: writing (cuneiform), law codes, urban planning, and agriculture that shaped future societies.

-3K to -1.3K

• Indus Valley Civilization
• Located in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India.
• Famous for its urban planning, advanced drainage, and sanitation systems.
• Known for urban planning, with cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa laid out on a grid system.
• Houses often had toilets with seats and chutes, connected to an underground sewage system.
• Waste was carried away through a network of covered drains, reducing the spread of disease.
• Disposal took place outside city limits, keeping cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa remarkably clean and hygienic compared to many later civilizations.
• The drainage and toilet system of the Indus Valley was so advanced that some historians consider it comparable to 19th-century Europe.
• Used standardized weights and measures, showing a highly organized economy.
• Built with uniform bricks, suggesting centralized planning and strong governance.
• Had an early writing system (the Indus script), still undeciphered today.
• Engaged in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, exchanging goods like beads, cotton textiles, and precious stones.
• Evidence suggests a relatively egalitarian society, with no clear signs of kings or large-scale warfare.
• Decline and Fall
• Environmental Changes
• The Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) River, once a lifeline, dried up or shifted course.
• Repeated flooding of the Indus River may have destroyed crops and settlements.
• Long-term climate change likely caused droughts, hurting agriculture.
• Economic Decline
• With less fertile land, food production dropped, leading to famine and depopulation.
• Trade with Mesopotamia declined as Mesopotamia itself weakened, cutting off economic lifelines.
• Urban Abandonment
• Big cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were gradually deserted.
• People moved into smaller rural villages, losing the centralized urban system that made the IVC special.

-3.1K to -30

• Ancient Egypt Civilization
• Ancient Egyptian civilization lasted over 3,000 years, making it one of the longest-lasting civilizations in history:
• Beginning: Around 3100 BCE
• unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer (or Menes) marks the start of the Early Dynastic Period.
• Old Kingdom (Pyramid Age): c. 2686–2181 BCE
• era of pyramid building, including the Great Pyramid of Giza.
• Pharaohs built monumental pyramids to secure their immortality
• Pharaohs believed their spirit (Ka) would continue to rule after death and needed resources and protection in the next world.
• Mummification preserved bodies; tombs were stocked with treasures, food, and offerings.
• Middle Kingdom: c. 2055–1650 BCE
• reunification and cultural renaissance.
• New Kingdom: c. 1550–1070 BCE 
• peak of power, expansion, and monumental architecture (e.g., temples at Karnak and Luxor).
• Late Period: c. 664–332 BCE 
• periods of foreign domination (Assyrians, Persians).
• End: 30 BCE 
• conquest by Rome, marking the end of ancient Egyptian independence.
• Religion and Gods:
• Polytheistic religion with gods like Ra (sun god), Osiris (afterlife), and Isis (magic and motherhood).
• Religion shaped politics, daily life, and monumental architecture.
• Writing and Record-Keeping:
• Developed hieroglyphics for monuments, tombs, and papyrus scrolls.
• Enabled administration, historical records, and religious/literary texts.
• Science and Technology:
• Astronomy: Developed a 365-day calendar based on Nile flooding.
• Medicine: Practiced basic surgery, dentistry, and herbal remedies.
• Engineering: Built temples, obelisks, and irrigation systems to support agriculture.
• Art and Culture:
• Produced sculptures, wall paintings, and jewelry emphasizing order and symbolism.
• Music, dance, and storytelling were integral to religious and social life.
• Agriculture and Economy:
• Depended on Nile River floods for fertile soil; grew wheat, barley, and flax.
• Raised livestock and engaged in trade for gold, copper, incense, and luxury goods.
• Societal Organization (pyramidical also!):
• Hierarchical society: Pharaoh → bureaucrats, priests and nobles → soldiers → scribes → artisans → farmers → slaves.
• At the Top – The Pharaoh
• The divine ruler, considered the mediator between the gods and humanity.
• Seen not just as a king, but as a god on Earth.
• The entire society existed to serve him, in life and in death.
• Pharaohs were buried in pyramids or grand tombs, ensuring their eternal rule in the afterlife.
• Example: Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE)
• Known as “Ramesses the Great”, he ruled for over 60 years.
• Oversaw monumental construction projects:
• The Temple of Abu Simbel (carved into rock, aligned with the sun).
• The Ramesseum (his mortuary temple).
• Additions to the Temple of Karnak.
• Expanded Egypt’s empire through military campaigns.
• Fought the famous Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites, which ended in one of the world’s first recorded peace treaties.
• Remembered as one of the most powerful and celebrated Pharaohs in Egyptian history.
• Bureaucrats, Priests, and Nobles
• Viziers and high officials ensured the kingdom ran smoothly.
• Priests oversaw temples, rituals, and communication with the gods.
• Priests in Ancient Egypt may have held one of the most powerful and privileged positions. Unlike the Pharaoh, who stood in the spotlight and carried the weight of constant scrutiny, a clever priest could operate in the shadows. With freedom to declare what they believed most beneficial, both for their people and for their own comfort, they shaped belief and society without bearing the full dangers of kingship. This role offered luxury and influence while sparing them from being the prime target of political struggles. Still, rivalries and hidden death wishes must have lurked beneath the surface, as power in Egypt was never without risk.
• Nobles governed regions of Egypt in the Pharaoh’s name.
• This group formed the backbone of Egyptian administration.
• Soldiers
• Tasked with protecting Egypt and expanding its borders.
• Often rewarded with land and food rations, making them better off than peasants.
• Also served as a police force to maintain order.
• Strong central government allowed large-scale projects and stability for thousands of years.
• Decline of Ancient Egypt:
• External invasions: Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans successively conquered Egypt.
• Internal instability: Periods of weak pharaohs, civil wars, and divided rule weakened the state.
• Economic strain: Over time, centralized control weakened, resources were mismanaged, and agriculture declined
• By 30 BCE, Egypt was conquered by Rome, marking the end of its independence and the classical Egyptian civilization.

-2.1K to -256

• Ancient China Civilization
• transitioned gradually through dynasties
• Xia Dynasty: ~2100–1600 BCE (legendary; earliest dynasty, historically debated)
• Founder & Achievements:
• The Yellow River was central to life but prone to devastating floods, which could destroy crops and cause famine.
• Yu the Great controlled Yellow River floods with dikes and channels. According to legend, Yu the Great dedicated 13 years to controlling the Yellow River
• Agriculture thrived with rice, wheat, and barley.
• Introduced the concept of merit-based leadership.
• Fall/Decline:
• Allegedly collapsed due to internal corruption and weak rulers.
• Paved the way for the Shang Dynasty to rise.
• Shang Dynasty: ~1600–1046 BCE
• Achievements:
• Developed oracle bone script, the earliest Chinese writing system.
• Advanced bronze metallurgy for ritual vessels, tools, and weapons.
• Built walled cities and palaces; centralized political structure.
• Practiced ancestor worship and ritual sacrifices
• Used astronomy and lunar calendars for agriculture and rituals.
• Organized military with chariots and bronze weapons.
• Fall/Decline:
• Overthrown by the Zhou Dynasty (~1046 BCE).
• Causes included military defeat, weakening central authority, and political instability.
• Zhou Dynasty: ~1046–256 BCE
• Includes the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, marked by internal conflict.
• End of Ancient China (Classical Dynastic Era): 256 BCE
• The Warring States period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE).
• Qin unified China under a centralized imperial system, starting the Imperial era.

-1.7K to -1.2K

• Hittite Civilization
• Rise and Unification
• Founded by Labarnas I (c. 1680–1650 BCE), who united the Hittite city-states in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).
• Expanded through a mix of military conquest and diplomatic alliances.
• Established Hattusa (near modern Boğazköy) as the capital.
• Achievements & Distinctive Features
• Military innovations: Mastery of chariot warfare; one of the first empires to widely use iron weapons, giving them an edge.
• Law codes: Created one of the most advanced legal systems of the Bronze Age—more humane than Hammurabi’s (fines often replaced death penalties).
• Diplomacy: Famous for the Treaty of Kadesh (c. 1259 BCE) with Egypt’s Ramses II—the first known written peace treaty in history.
• Cultural fusion: Adopted and adapted Mesopotamian deities and customs, showing openness to cultural blending.
• Cultural fusion: Adopted and adapted Mesopotamian deities and customs, showing openness to cultural blending.
• Decline and Fall
• Reached peak under Suppiluliuma I (c. 1344–1322 BCE)
• Internal struggles: succession disputes and civil wars weakened central authority.
• External threats:
• Attacks from the Sea Peoples (c. 1200 BCE).
• Pressure from the rising Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia.
• Final collapse around 1178 BCE, part of the wider Late Bronze Age Collapse that also struck Mycenaean Greece and Egypt.
• Hittite lands fragmented into smaller Neo-Hittite states, later absorbed by Assyria.

-1.6K to -1.1K

• Mycenaean Greece civilization
• Location: 
• Modern-day Greece (mainland).
• Structure: 
• Collection of independent city-states with rigid hierarchies (Troy, Mycenae, Pylos).
• Society:
• Dominated by an elite warrior aristocracy.
• Organized around palace-centered economies (redistribution of goods, centralized storage).
• Strict hierarchical system: king (Wanax) → nobles → soldiers → farmers/craftsmen → slaves.
• Government: 
• Each city-state had its own king, no central unification.
• Notable Figures:
• Agamemnon – King of Mycenae; legendary leader of the Greek forces in the Trojan War.
• Menelaus – King of Sparta; husband of Helen, whose abduction by Paris sparked the Trojan War.
• Nestor – King of Pylos; famed for wisdom and diplomacy.
• Odysseus (if part of later tradition) – King of Ithaca; renowned for cleverness.
• Culture & Achievements:
• Built fortified palaces with advanced defensive walls (Cyclopean masonry), so massive they were believed to be built by giants.
• Created Linear B script, earliest written Greek (used for record keeping).
• Known for military expeditions and expansion across the Aegean.
• Rich art and goldwork (famous “Mask of Agamemnon”), decorated pottery and weaponry.
• Associated with legendary events like the Trojan War (though partly mythological), immortalized later in Homer's epics.
• Developed advanced engineering: bridges, roads, dams, and drainage systems.
• Trade & Influence:
• Extensive trade with Egypt, Anatolia, and the Near East.
• Influenced by Minoan Crete but became dominant after its decline.
• Decline/Fall:
• Palace system collapsed, cities abandoned or destroyed.
• Possible causes:
• Invasions (e.g. Sea Peoples).
• Internal conflicts between rival states (Dorians).
• Economic breakdown of palace-centered system. Collapse of trade networks leading to economic decline.
• Natural disasters (earthquakes, drought, famine)
• Entered the Greek Dark Ages (loss of literacy, reduced population, decline in art/architecture).

1965

• CMB or Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is discovered